By, Luke Pitts – O2X On-Site Specialist
General Training
When it comes to performance training you may have heard that you need to train a specific thing to get better at that task. Which is true; the familiarization effect, SAID principle, and various other task specific adaptations occur when we “practice the test”. However, this methodology tends to leave large gaps in physical performance, reduce training variety through various means, and decrease our ability to be prepared for the unknowns that life and occupation so frequently throw our way.
The reason why I am such a strong advocate for general training for most, and especially general training first is that it allows us to capture “low hanging fruit” physical qualities, leads to better training efficiency, and reduces the downsides of black swan events that may curtail performance. This article could also be titled athlete vs task specific training (which in a sense, is also specific, specific to the athlete!), because instead of focusing on the physical requirements of a 16-mile ruck or a powerlifting competition; I want to emphasize and highlight individual limitations and address those first, before diving into hyper-specialized training methods and modalities.
Transfer of Training
The transfer of training refers to the ability for a trained factor or intervention to impact another factor or environment, which is not directly trained over a given period of time. The concept of the transfer of training originates from Organizational Psychology and is the application of the transfer of learning theory. In 2007, this concept was formally introduced into the lexicon of human performance training by Dr. Anatoliy Bondarchuk. In his book: The Transfer of Training In Sports, Dr. Bondarchuk introduces a widely used exercise classification system ranging from general methods to specific methods to competitive exercises – the sport/event itself (Fig. 1). Exercises are placed into the hierarchy based on the dynamic correspondence (Verkhoshansky 2009) between that exercise and its relation to the sport or competitive event, demonstrating the need to reverse engineer and deeply understand the underpinning biomotor, bioenergetic, and biodynamic qualities of the event a person is preparing for:
Biomotor Qualities: strength, speed, power, suppleness, skill, stamina
Boenergetic Qualities: aerobic, lactic, alactic
Biodynamic Qualities
Refer to the interaction between the above-mentioned qualities, and the ability to express the necessary [skill, strength, lactic, etc] qualities at the right time based on the technical and tactical aspects of a sporting or high performance environment.
When it comes to reverse engineering a task environment, one must consider the biomotor, bioenergetic, and biodynamic qualities that are required to perform the task. As the training environments’ biomotor, bioenergetic, and biodynamic qualities more closely resemble the event, competition, or task in question, dynamic correspondence increases.
For most, obtaining requisite biomotor and bioenergetic qualities for a task are usually easy to measure and track, but because of this they tend to become overemphasized in developmental models for human performance. The ability to apply the right amount of strength, speed, aerobic power, etc. in a complex, chaotic, task environment becomes much difficult when you are constrained by time, have an unpredictable opponent, and are required to cohesively move with a team of other professionals who perceive things outside of your observation, have differing skills and experiences than you, and therefore, use different means of solving high performance problems.
Figure 1. Bondarchuk & Yessis, Transfer of Training in Sports. (2007)
Why General Training Works
As demonstrated in figure one, as specificity increases, so does the exercises ability to replicate the event/sport; where decreases in specificity lead to more athlete centered training (or general training). General training tends to look at and address broad, “rate limiters” in an athletes ability, regardless of the mode said rate limiter: inter/intra muscular coordination, aerobic capacity, rate coding, alactic power, speed, etc.
General training also tends to address unknown variables within complex performance environments more effectively. Because the event or sport is rarely truly known, general training, which addresses individual physiological limitations, tends to better physically prepare athletes for the known and unknowns of the complex sporting and tactical environments.
Another reason to advocate for general training is the concept of long term athlete development (LTAD). LTAD is a method of training, or a periodization model that considers things like training age, chronological age, previous training exposures (both chronically and acutely), and programs in a manner that doesn’t just consider the current physical condition of an athlete, but also considers to next stimulus that you aim to apply to them. The paradox with physical preparation is that the goal of applying a specific stimulus, say 5×5@85%, is that the way to measure success of a given exercise prescription is that the stimulus eventually stops working. Said another way, novel training exposures initiate a physiological response that aims to bring the body back into homeostasis under the new demand; thus, making that training exposure benign to a physiological response in the future – a point of diminished returns. Well, we also know that we cannot just keep adding 5lbs to the bar into eternity, so how can we continue to develop for years without burning out due to overtraining or lose the novelty of training? The key is to organize training in a careful, intelligent manner with the end in mind. If you are working with an Olympic Swimmer on the third year of a quad, who has told the staff they are retiring after these Olympics? You’re going to want to introduce novelty by targeting overspeed, power development, bands, etc; what about the 19-year old SFAS operator who plans to retire in group: that athlete will need to train and improve for the next ~20 years, maintain a physical edge over peers, and be ready to deploy, fight, and win at a moments notice? You’ll need to stretch out training novelty for two decades, minimal effective dosing and thinking with the end in mind is key for this athlete. Because the end is fixed, fixed in time, but also in the body’s ability to tolerate load. Training volume will have to start out low – as low as possible to elicit a response, when that stimulus loses its novelty, simply add a small amount of volume, or change another training variable, just enough to elicit a response, and repeat unit that stimulus also loses its novelty, repeat ad nauseam.
Minimal effective dose (MED) gets a bad reputation, but this is because it is mostly misunderstood. Many tend to place emphasis on minimal when they should be emphasizing effective under the context of a minimal dose. MED, when applied properly, simply takes into consideration that the body has a finite ability to manage stress – within an hour, day, week. This stress MUST be managed. If enough stress is applied in the weight room that now it affects sports practice, marksmanship training, or cognitive ability negatively should someone conclude that the weight room session was productive? Certainly not for someone who should be using the weight room as a tool and a means to an end of improved domain specific performance.
Figure 2 provides an example of how physical, technical, and tactical demands may fluctuate throughout a lifetime. For an operator that spends 20+ years in a high performing environment, they will see increased performance through increasing physical capabilities, but also technical and tactical domains of performance. As physical performance peaks and then decreases later in life, an older operator will continue to see improvements because more time is spent developing increased technical and tactical domains of their performance.
Examples of General Training in Practice
When the rubber meets the road, it doesn’t matter what myself or others have been saying about a specific training method, what does the evidence say? We have been talking about some of the theoretical underpinnings as to why general training works, but it is time to pivot to some examples of how general training can elicit specific training responses.
General Training for Cognitive Performance:
Exercise is a powerful intervention that extends beyond physical health, significantly enhancing mental performance in various ways. Research has consistently demonstrated its positive impact on cognitive function, mental well-being, and psychomotor skills. Whether improving memory and focus, reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety, or refining reaction times and motor coordination, exercise serves as an effective tool for mental and neurological enhancement.
Depression, Anxiety, and Mental Health:
“Exercise has therapeutic effects on depression in all age groups (mostly 18–65 years old), as a single therapy, an adjuvant therapy, or a combination therapy, and the benefits of exercise therapy are comparable to traditional treatments for depression. Moderate intensity exercise is enough to reduce depressive symptoms, but higher-dose exercise is better for overall functioning. Exercise therapy has become more widely used because of its benefits to the cardiovascular system, emotional state, and systemic functions.” (Xie et Al 2021)
“Exercise is an effective treatment for depression, with walking or jogging, yoga, and strength training more effective than other exercises, particularly when intense. Yoga and strength training were well tolerated compared with other treatments. Exercise appeared equally effective for people with and without comorbidities and with different baseline levels of depression. To mitigate expectancy effects, future studies could aim to blind participants and staff. These forms of exercise could be considered alongside psychotherapy and antidepressants as core treatments for depression.” (Noetel et Al 2024)
“The premature mortality of individuals with depression is an alarming public health concern, which is exacerbated by the present inability to offer satisfactory treatments. Physical exercise represents an underutilized intervention that may uniquely address both concerns at the same time. First, exercise offers numerous physical benefits, which can counteract several mechanisms postulated to increase mortality risk in depression. Second, if prescribed and delivered correctly, exercise can be as effective as other first-line treatments, while being mostly free of adverse side-effects.” (Murri et Al 2019)
Cognition, Focus, and Attention:
“[There is a] positive relationship between physical fitness and cognitive functioning. However, this benefit was driven by a substantial association between PF and cognition in middle-aged to older adults, whereas only a weak association between PF and cognition was found in younger to middle-aged adults.” (Gajewski et Al 2023)
“Motor and sports activity can make brain functions more efficient, plastic and adaptable, which translates into a significant improvement in memory and executive function due to positive modifications that trigger changes in neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity and neuronal proliferation. The data discussed in this review show that motor activity can be used to improve cognitive abilities both in healthy individuals and in those with cognitive decline, as it would be a predisposing terrain on which to accommodate the changes and adaptations induced by learning new and more evolved functions and skills.” (Latino and Tafuri 2024)
“The overwhelming evidence present in the literature today suggests that exercise ensures successful brain functioning.” (Deslandes et Al 2009)
Psychomotor Performance:
“Moderate aerobic exercise (65–75% theoretical HR max) for around 20 min before playing improves performance of highly experienced gamers in comparison to our control” (Santos et Al 2024)
“Physically active groups yielded greater [results in] Simple Reaction Time (SRT) and Coincidence-anticipation timing (CAT) tests…[demonstrating] increased levels of physical activity were related to superior physiological outcomes and improved psychomotor performance.” (Christensen et Al 2003)
Addiction:
“Our results suggest that a short bout of moderate exercise helps both low-activity and physically active smokers. These findings provided a novel insight into the psychological mechanisms that affect the efficacy of the exercise in smoking cessation and suggest that exercise should be tailored according to individual perception of intensity.” (Masiero et Al 2020)
References
Belvederi Murri, M., Ekkekakis, P., Magagnoli, M., Zampogna, D., Cattedra, S., Capobianco, L., Serafini, G., Calcagno, P., Zanetidou, S., & Amore, M. (2019). Physical exercise in major depression: Reducing the mortality gap while improving clinical outcomes. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00762
Bondarchuk, A., & Yessis, M. (2007). Transfer of Training in Sports. Ultimate Athlete Concepts.
Booth, F. W., Roberts, C. K., & Laye, M. J. (2012). Lack of exercise is a major cause of chronic diseases. Comprehensive Physiology, 1143–1211. https://doi.org/10.1002/cphy.c110025
Bowden, J. A., Bowden, A. E., Wang, H., Hager, R. L., LeCheminant, J. D., & Mitchell, U. H. (2018). In vivo correlates between daily physical activity and Intervertebral Disc Health. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 36(5), 1313–1323. https://doi.org/10.1002/jor.23765
Cholewicki, J., Breen, A., Popovich, J. M., Reeves, N. P., Sahrmann, S. A., van Dillen, L. R., Vleeming, A., & Hodges, P. W. (2019). Can biomechanics research lead to more effective treatment of low back pain? A point-counterpoint debate. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 49(6), 425–436. https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2019.8825
Christensen, C. L., Payne, V. G., Wughalter, E. H., Van, J. H., Henehan, M., & Jones, R. (2003). Physical activity, physiological, and psychomotor performance: A study of variously active older adult men. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 74(2), 136–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2003.10609075
Colberg, S. R., Sigal, R. J., Fernhall, B., Regensteiner, J. G., Blissmer, B. J., Rubin, R. R., Chasan-Taber, L., Albright, A. L., & Braun, B. (2010). Exercise and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care, 33(12). https://doi.org/10.2337/dc10-9990
Colberg, S. R., Sigal, R. J., Yardley, J. E., Riddell, M. C., Dunstan, D. W., Dempsey, P. C., Horton, E. S., Castorino, K., & Tate, D. F. (2016). Physical activity/exercise and diabetes: A position statement of the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care, 39(11), 2065–2079. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc16-1728
Cook, C. E., Keter, D., Cade, W. T., Winkelstein, B. A., & Reed, W. R. (2024). Manual therapy and exercise effects on inflammatory cytokines: A narrative overview. Frontiers in Rehabilitation Sciences, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fresc.2024.1305925
Deslandes, A., Moraes, H., Ferreira, C., Veiga, H., Silveira, H., Mouta, R., Pompeu, F. A. M. S., Coutinho, E. S., & Laks, J. (2009). Exercise and mental health: Many reasons to move. Neuropsychobiology, 59(4), 191–198. https://doi.org/10.1159/000223730
Dhaliwal, S. S., Welborn, T. A., & Howat, P. A. (2013). Recreational physical activity as an independent predictor of multivariable cardiovascular disease risk. PLoS ONE, 8(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083435
Dos Santos, J., Figuireido, T., Benoît, C.-E., & Chaplais, E. (2024). Physical and/or cognitive warm-up effects on first-person shooter video-games performances. Entertainment Computing, 49, 100618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.entcom.2023.100618
Farina, E. K., Thompson, L. A., Knapik, J. J., Pasiakos, S. M., McClung, J. P., & Lieberman, H. R. (2019). Physical performance, demographic, psychological, and physiological predictors of success in the U.S. Army Special Forces Assessment and Selection Course. Physiology & Behavior, 210, 112647. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.112647
Farina, E. K., Thompson, L. A., Knapik, J. J., Pasiakos, S. M., McClung, J. P., & Lieberman, H. R. (2021). Anthropometrics and body composition predict physical performance and selection to attend special forces training in United States Army Soldiers. Military Medicine, 187(11–12), 1381–1388. https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/usab315
Fransen, J. (2024). There is no supporting evidence for a far transfer of general perceptual or cognitive training to sports performance. Sports Medicine, 54(11), 2717–2724. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-024-02060-x
Gajewski, P. D., Golka, K., Hengstler, J. G., Kadhum, T., Digutsch, J., Genç, E., Wascher, E., & Getzmann, S. (2023). Does physical fitness affect cognitive functions differently across adulthood? an advantage of being older. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1134770
Gordon, R., & Bloxham, S. (2016). A systematic review of the effects of exercise and physical activity on non-specific chronic low back pain. Healthcare, 4(2), 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare4020022
Hibbert, A. W., Billaut, F., Varley, M. C., & Polman, R. C. (2017). Familiarization protocol influences reproducibility of 20-km cycling time-trial performance in Novice participants. Frontiers in Physiology, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2017.00488
Kreisel, B. R., Scott, K. M., Florkiewicz, E. M., Crowell, M. S., Morris, J. B., McHenry, P. A., & Benedict, T. M. (2025). The relationship between self-efficacy, aerobic fitness, and traditional risk factors for musculoskeletal injuries in military training: A prospective cohort study. International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.26603/001c.127137
Latino, F., & Tafuri, F. (2024). Physical activity and cognitive functioning. Medicina, 60(2), 216. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina60020216
Masiero, M., Keyworth, H., Pravettoni, G., Cropley, M., & Bailey, A. (2020). Short bouts of physical activity are associated with reduced smoking withdrawal symptoms, but perceptions of intensity may be the key. Healthcare, 8(4), 425. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare8040425
Moghetti, P., Bacchi, E., Brangani, C., Donà, S., & Negri, C. (2016). Metabolic effects of exercise. Frontiers of Hormone Research, 44–57. https://doi.org/10.1159/000445156
Naugle, K. M., Ohlman, T., Naugle, K. E., Riley, Z. A., & Keith, N. R. (2017). Physical activity behavior predicts endogenous pain modulation in older adults. Pain, 158(3), 383–390. https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000769
Naujoks, N., Harder, B., & Händel, M. (2022). Testing pays off twice: Potentials of practice tests and feedback regarding exam performance and judgment accuracy. Metacognition and Learning, 17(2), 479–498. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-022-09295-x
Noetel, M., Sanders, T., Gallardo-Gómez, D., Taylor, P., del Pozo Cruz, B., van den Hoek, D., Smith, J. J., Mahoney, J., Spathis, J., Moresi, M., Pagano, R., Pagano, L., Vasconcellos, R., Arnott, H., Varley, B., Parker, P., Biddle, S., & Lonsdale, C. (2024). Effect of exercise for depression: Systematic review and network meta-analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials. BMJ. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2023-075847
Oeschger, R., Roos, L., Wyss, T., Buller, M., Veenstra, B., & Gilgen-Ammann, R. (2022). Influence of soldiers’ cardiorespiratory fitness on physiological responses and dropouts during a loaded long-distance March. Military Medicine, 188(7–8). https://doi.org/10.1093/milmed/usab540
Rice, D., Nijs, J., Kosek, E., Wideman, T., Hasenbring, M. I., Koltyn, K., Graven-Nielsen, T., & Polli, A. (2019). Exercise-induced hypoalgesia in pain-free and chronic pain populations: State of the art and Future Directions. The Journal of Pain, 20(11), 1249–1266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2019.03.005
Smith, B. E., Littlewood, C., & May, S. (2014). An update of stabilisation exercises for low back pain: A systematic review with meta-analysis. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2474-15-416
Steffens, D., Maher, C. G., Pereira, L. S., Stevens, M. L., Oliveira, V. C., Chapple, M., Teixeira-Salmela, L. F., & Hancock, M. J. (2016). Prevention of low back pain. JAMA Internal Medicine, 176(2), 199. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2015.7431
Tabata, I. (2019). Tabata training: One of the most energetically effective high-intensity intermittent training methods. The Journal of Physiological Sciences, 69(4), 559–572. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12576-019-00676-7
Thyfault, J. P., & Bergouignan, A. (2020). Exercise and metabolic health: Beyond skeletal muscle. Diabetologia, 63(8), 1464–1474. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-020-05177-6
Verkhoshansky, Y., & Siff, M. C. (2009). Supertraining. Verkhoshansky ; Distributed by Ultimate Athlete Concepts.
Withrow, K. L., Rubin, D. A., Dawes, J. J., Orr, R. M., Lynn, S. K., & Lockie, R. G. (2023). Army Combat Fitness Test relationships to Tactical Foot March Performance in Reserve Officers’ Training Corps Cadets. Biology, 12(3), 477. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12030477
Xie, Y., Wu, Z., Sun, L., Zhou, L., Wang, G., Xiao, L., & Wang, H. (2021). The effects and mechanisms of exercise on the treatment of depression. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.705559
Årnes, A. P., Nielsen, C. S., Stubhaug, A., Fjeld, M. K., Johansen, A., Morseth, B., Strand, B. H., Wilsgaard, T., & Steingrímsdóttir, Ó. A. (2023). Longitudinal relationships between habitual physical activity and pain tolerance in the general population. PLOS ONE, 18(5). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285041
About O2X On-Site Specialist Luke Pitts:
Luke Pitts is a highly experienced O2X On-Site Human Performance Specialist, certified in Strength and Conditioning, with over a decade of expertise. His career has involved working with diverse populations including elite military units, Division 1 athletes, professional baseball players, world-champion powerlifters, youth athletes, and the general public. Pitts’ skills encompass comprehensive training and education programs, data science and process optimization, and project management and curriculum development, all aimed at delivering immediate and sustainable improvements in human performance.
About O2X Human Performance:
O2X Human Performance provides comprehensive, science-backed programs to hundreds of public safety departments, federal agencies, and the military. O2X works with clients to elevate culture, improve mental and physical wellbeing, support healthy lifestyles, and reduce healthcare costs associated with injuries and illnesses. Driven by results and cutting edge research, O2X programs are designed and delivered by a team of Special Operations veterans, high level athletes, and hundreds of leading experts in their respective fields of human performance.
